Introspection, power, and responsibility: initial thoughts after reading The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean
What am I learning from the two Confucian classics?
Note: This article was originally written in Chinese and published on my WeChat Public Account. I translated it to put it here. Read here in Chinese if you are interested.
Recently, I've been interested in Wang Yangming's philosophy and started reading his Instructions for Practical Living. The work references and discusses many Confucian classics, and I realised that although I've read The Analects a few times, I haven't even read all the Four Books. So, I decided to take this opportunity to delve into them. The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean are not long, so I started with these. I've read them twice, cover to cover, and have many thoughts. I share some of them here and may share more in the future. Of course, I am not an expert on Chinese classics, so this piece contains just some personal humble opinions. I welcome criticism and feedback from more knowledgeable readers.
I've always felt that Confucianism emphasise introspection rather than judgement. As The Analects states, "The decent people make demands on themselves. The petty people make demands on others." (君子求诸己，小人求诸人). Ironically and unfortunately, feudal rulers and their accomplices haven't been applying Confucian ideas to themselves but twisted the ideas to demand compliance from others, resulting in an oppressive society. They wave a flag of Confucianism on the surface, but what they do is anti-Confucianism at the very core.
Meanwhile, I believe Confucian classics contain universal and progressive ideas. However, feudal rulers deliberately monopolised the interpretation of Confucian teachings to consolidate their power and interests. They distorted and amplified certain aspects of Confucianism to control and enslave the people. The reinterpretation of classics and the call for independent thinking had been the core values throughout the intellectual liberation movements in Western Europe, from the Renaissance to the Reformation and the Enlightenment. I believe modern readers of Confucian classics can adopt a similar spirit, developing their own interpretations with some reference to experts.
The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean confirm and deepen those thoughts of mine. These works highlight not only the introspective nature of Confucianism but also its emphasis on the balance of power and responsibility. The greater the power, the greater the responsibility, and the greater the demand for introspection. In the preface to The Doctrine of the Mean, Zhu Xi outlines the Confucian lineage before Confucius back to Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, King Wen, King Wu, Gao Yao, Yi Yin, Fu Yue, Duke Zhou and Duke Shao. Besides their virtues, the common thing about these individuals is they were at the core of power. Therefore, Confucianism, first and foremost, demands that those in power uphold higher standards.
Unfortunately, this also highlights a crucial limitation of Confucian thought: relying solely on the moral self-reflection of those in power without rule-based accountability. It is not enough, as history has repeatedly shown. It results in a "waiting-for-saviour mindset" held by many people, even today, hoping for wise rulers and upright officials to improve their lives. Mistakes and tragedies in history will continue to reoccur if people don't realise that "Il n'est pas de sauveurs suprêmes; Ni dieu, ni César, ni tribun" (The Internationale. There are no supreme saviours, neither God, nor Caesar, nor tribune). Those seemingly competent autocrats may initially achieve some success. However, unchecked power will eventually lead them to lose touch with reality, dragging society down with their personal ambitions, often at a heavy cost.
Overall, I find The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean timeless classics with strong universality. I cannot discuss everything in one article, so below, I will mainly quote texts about introspection, power, and responsibility that I highly resonated with and share my humble thoughts about them.
"What the Great Learning teaches, is to illustrate illustrious virtue; to be close to and renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence." (大学之道，在明明德，在亲民，在止于至善。)
The opening line of The Great Learning. It is hard to get the feeling if you are unfamiliar with Chinese culture, but every time I read this line in Chinese, I feel empowered and enlightened; it fills me with righteousness and passion. "The Great Learning" refers to the tenet of learning and growth in education and life. To illustrate illustrious virtue, to be close to and renovate the people, and to rest in the highest excellence are what Zhu Xi referred to as the "three guiding principles". I think this tenet transcends time and borders. Of course, on the other hand, most people would agree to pursue virtues, but it is hard to agree on the virtues to pursue.
"The point where to rest being known, the object of pursuit is then determined; and, that being determined, a calm unperturbedness may be attained to. To that calmness there will succeed a tranquil repose. In that repose there may be careful deliberation, and that deliberation will be followed by the attainment of the desired end." (知止而后有定，定而后能静，静而后能安，安而后能虑，虑而后能得。)
The second line of The Great Learning. This part resonates with a recent realisation of mine. As I approach the end of my PhD, I was previously a bit uncertain about my future. However, after much reflection, such as my previous writings on my depression and my values and strengths, I've become clearer about what kind of person I want to be and what kind of life I want to lead. This clarity makes me calm and determined. I indeed experienced this process of thinking about what I really want out of life, and then I have determination, calmness, peace, contemplation, and understanding. All those make my career planning clearer.
Next, The Great Learning goes into the "eight clauses" that people familiar with Confucian culture would all somewhat know: investigate things, extend knowledge, make heart sincere, rectify minds, cultivate themselves, regulate families, govern states, and illustrate illustrious virtue to the whole world. (格物致知，诚心正意，修身齐家，治国平天下). It is important to note that The Great Learning introduces these in the following order:
"The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the world first ordered well their own states. Wishing to order well their states, they first regulated their families … From the Son of Heaven down to the masses of the people, all must consider the cultivation of the person as the root of everything besides."
It mainly talks about the need for structure in pursuing ideals. However, it also raises the balance of power and responsibility: both rulers and the masses must cultivate themselves, but rulers have greater responsibilities.
"On the bathing tub of Tang, the following words were engraved: 'If you can one day renovate yourself, do so from day to day. Yea, let there be daily renovation.' In the Announcement to Kang, it is said, 'Inspire people to innovate.' In the Book of Poetry, it is said, 'Although Zhou was an ancient state, its fate is to renew.' ( 汤之《盘铭》曰：“苟日新，日日新，又日新。”《康诰》曰： "作新民。" 《诗》曰： "周虽旧邦，其命惟新。")
While Confucianism is often seen as traditional and conservative, these lines show it does value innovation.
"On this account, the rulers must themselves be possessed of the good qualities, and then they may require the qualities in the people. They must not have the bad qualities in themselves, and then they may require that those shall not be in the people." The Great Learning. (是故君子有诸己而后求诸人，无诸己而后非诸人).
They rectify themselves and seek nothing from others so that they have no dissatisfaction. They do not murmur against Heaven nor grumble against people. Thus, the decent person is quiet and calm, waiting for the appointments of Heaven, while the petty person walks in dangerous paths, looking for lucky occurrences. Confucius said, "In archery, we have something like the way of the decent people. When the archer misses the centre of the target, they turn round and seek for the cause of their failure in themselves." The Doctrine of the Mean. (正己而不求于人，则无怨。上不怨天，下不尤人。故君子居易以俟命，小人行险以侥幸。子曰：“射有似乎君子，失诸正鹄，反求诸其身。”)
"The decent people make demands on themselves. The petty people make demands on others." The Analects. (君子求诸己，小人求诸人).
"Benevolence is like archery: archers make sure their stances are correct before letting fly the arrow, and if they fail to hit the mark, they do not hold it against their victors. They simply seek the cause within themselves." The Mencius. (仁者如射：射者正己而后发；发而不中，不怨胜己者，反求诸己而已矣)
Introspection is emphasised throughout the Four Books, highlighting its importance in Confucianism.
"In the Book of Poetry, it is said, 'Before the sovereigns of the Yin dynasty had lost the hearts of the people, they could appear before God. Take warning from the house of Yin. The great decree is not easily preserved.' This shows that by gaining the people, the kingdom is gained, and by losing the people, the kingdom is lost." (《诗》云：“殷之未丧师，克配上帝。仪监于殷，峻命不易。”道得众则得国，失众则失国)
"In the Announcement to Kang, it is said, 'The decree indeed may not always rest on us'; that is, goodness obtains the decree, and the non-goodness loses it." (《康诰》曰：“惟命不于常。”道善则得之，不善则失之矣。)
These quotes talk about how people's support and Heaven's blessing depend on the rulers' goodness. It reflects a level of social contract: rulers' legitimacy depends on their virtues, and violating the contract means losing the people's support and Heaven's blessing.
"Confucius said, 'The government of Wen and Wu is displayed in the records, the tablets of wood and bamboo. When virtuous people like them exist, the government will flourish; but without those people, the government decays and ceases.'" (子曰：“文武之政，布在方策。其人存，则其政举；其人亡，则其政息。”)
It is such a shame that they have already arrived here but have not taken a step further. Later, the book still goes on about how people in power should be introspective instead of exploring how to deal with this problem of relying on the virtue of powerful individuals by setting up a system of rules and accountability.
Therefore, introspection and the balance of power and responsibility are evident throughout The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean. Some texts are so obvious they need no further explanation.
Bibliography:
王国轩译注. 2022. 大学·中庸（中华经典藏书·升级版）. 出版社：中华书局有限公司。ISBN：9787101113501 （微信读书版）
Confucius; Everywhere, Masterpiece. The Complete Confucius: The Analects, The Doctrine Of The Mean, and The Great Learning. Masterpiece Everywhere. Kindle Edition.
Mencius. Mencius (Penguin Classics). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition.
The Internet Classics Archive. https://classics.mit.edu/index.html